{"id":212,"date":"2025-03-13T16:51:11","date_gmt":"2025-03-13T03:51:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/?page_id=212"},"modified":"2026-08-28T11:00:30","modified_gmt":"2026-08-27T23:00:30","slug":"fact-sheet","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/?page_id=212","title":{"rendered":"Farm Biosecurity"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center has-accent-color has-text-color\" style=\"font-style:normal;font-weight:100\">Biosecurity measures to control salmonellosis on NZ dairy farms<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Background<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Key features of <em>Salmonella <\/em>to understand to formulate an effective control programme are that <em>Salmonella<\/em>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Commonly enters farms in infected recovered or carrier animals imported onto the farm, or in wild animals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Spreads between livestock by faecal-oral pathways<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>May be shed in all body fluids, but especially manure, immediately before, during and for up to 70 days following recovery in adult cattle, and for 14 days in calves<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>May persist in the environment in moist or wet (&lt;85% DM) conditions, shaded areas and effluent for weeks or months<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Can infect any bird or mammal (including humans) or reptile species<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The key factors that affect whether ingestion of <em>Salmonella <\/em>leads to clinical disease and its severity are the:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Virulence of the serovar<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Dose\/number of the bacteria that are ingested<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Strength of the host\u2019s immunity, including any previous exposure to <em>Salmonella <\/em>or vaccination, and the presence of other dietary stressors including disruption of normal gut microbe balance or low dietary intake for 1 or more days<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Of these factors, the first can\u2019t be controlled on farm, but the remaining two can be targeted by management interventions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Finally, antibiotic resistant <em>Salmonella <\/em>are a real threat to public and animal health and therefore efforts to prevent and control disease outbreaks that don\u2019t use antibiotics should be prioritised.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Biosecurity protocols<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Biosecurity protocols to control salmonellosis should be developed in a partnership between the farmer and their trusted vet advisor. The following steps can be followed to develop a salmonellosis control programme:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Assess the risks of management practices on an individual farm basis found in the biosecurity measures Tables 1 and 2<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Focus on controlling the management practices which likely have the greatest risks and which can be modified<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Protocols should be reassessed in the event of an outbreak<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Because many of the risks for salmonellosis in dairy herds are common to other infectious diseases, controlling these risks will also have benefits for control of other diseases<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>At the \u2018farm gate\u2019 protocols aim to prevent or reduce the risk of importing <em>Salmonella <\/em>onto or from exiting from the farm (Table 1).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><em>Table 1: Measures to control salmonellosis on NZ dairy farms &#8216;at the farm gate&#8217;<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"width:100%;overflow:auto\">\n<table border=\"1\" style=\"width:90%;min-width:600px;margin:0 auto;border-collapse:collapse\">\n \n<thead>\n<tr style=\"background:#0066b3;color:#fff\">\n<th style=\"padding:10px\">Risk factor<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding:10px\">Control measure<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding:10px;text-align:center;width:100px\">Measure adequate?<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding:10px\">Details<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n\u00a0\n<tbody style=\"font-size:80%\">\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"5\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">\nImporting <i>Salmonella<\/i> onto farm with infected cattle\n<\/td>\n<td>Closed herd and no co-grazing policy<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>If not feasible, develop an effective plan to screen and exclude animals from unknown or high-risk herds e.g. herds that trade or co-graze stock or with known history of salmonellosis.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Quarantine new arrivals<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Isolate imported animals for 2 weeks and monitor for signs of disease (particularly appropriate for calves).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"3\">Manage to enable closed herd policy<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Rear sufficient pregnant replacements so importing cows unnecessary.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Optimise cow health and reproductive performance to avoid preventable culling and mortality.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Optimise heifer rearing practices so that those replacements reach weight targets and calve at optimum body condition as 2-year-olds.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td rowspan=\"5\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">\nImporting <i>Salmonella<\/i> onto farm with contaminated items or in contaminated feed or water\n<\/td>\n<td>Avoid use of equipment or vehicles from other farms used for manure management<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>If not feasible then clean and disinfect equipment before use.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Prevent high risk off-farm vehicles from access to areas with livestock or cattle feed<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>e.g. dead animal collection trucks, livestock trucks.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Purchase feed from suppliers with good pest control management<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Fence off water courses<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Additionally, delay access to previously flooded pasture or conserved feed or crops for as long as practical.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Provide cleaning and disinfection area for visitors<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Provide piped water, brushes, buckets and disinfectants adjacent to bobby calf loading facility, calf rearing facilities and entry\/exit point to dairy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"4\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">\nImporting <i>Salmonella<\/i> onto farm via infected feral animals or birds\n<\/td>\n<td>Maintain boundary fencing to high standard<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Ensure boundary fencing is adequate to prevent entry of large feral animals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td rowspan=\"3\">Prevent access to feed by pests and vermin<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Use bird- and rodent-proof feed storage facilities, including bird-proof calf meal feeders.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Cover face of silage stacks between taking feed from them.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Apply appropriate pest management plans.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<\/tbody>\n\n\n<\/table>\n\u00a0\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\"><br>Behind the \u2018farm gate\u2019 protocols aim to minimise or eliminate the transmission of <em>Salmonella <\/em>between livestock on-farm if <em>Salmonella <\/em>has already entered (Table 2). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><em>Table 2: Measures to control salmonellosis on NZ dairy farms &#8216;behind the farm gate&#8217; (calf-specific measures in bold type)<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"width:100%;overflow:auto\">\n\u00a0\n<table border=\"1\" style=\"width:90%;min-width:600px;margin:0 auto;border-collapse:collapse\">\n\u00a0\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"background:#0066b3;color:#fff\">\n<th style=\"padding:10px\">Risk factor<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding:10px\">Control measure<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding:10px;text-align:center;width:100px\">Measure adequate?<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding:10px\">Details<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n\u00a0\n<tbody style=\"font-size:85%\">\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"5\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">High levels of environmental contamination with <i>Salmonella<\/i><\/td>\n<td>Promptly diagnose, isolate and treat suspected or confirmed salmonellosis cases<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Confirm cases and antibiotic sensitivity by bacteriological testing. Continue isolation for as long as feasible according to age group.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>In an outbreak handle all animals as if they are shedding <i>Salmonella<\/i><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Symptomatic animals are likely only the &#8220;tip of the iceberg&#8221; (see &#8220;Human health risk&#8221; below).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Separate all sick from colostrum cows<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Include confirmed or suspect salmonellosis cases among the sick.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Use an &#8216;all-in, all-out&#8217; calf management system<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Apply system to both healthy and sick calves. Remove bedding, clean, rest and disinfect pens between batches of calves.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Isolate high risk calves<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Calves born from cows suspected or diagnosed with salmonellosis should be isolated and considered at risk of developing the disease themselves.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td rowspan=\"5\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">Infection spreading between stock via feed and water<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"3\">Avoid contamination of feed with manure<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Avoid feeding cattle off the ground, or if not feasible, feed on fresh pasture breaks daily.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Avoid staff walking across feed with manure-contaminated boots.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Clean manure from vehicle tyres before they access feed storage areas.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Graze young stock separately from and ahead of adults<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Prevent access of livestock to surface water or flood-affected feed<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"7\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">Infection spreading to or between calves from environment and via milk and colostrum<\/td>\n<td>Collect newborn calves &gt; 1 times daily where feasible<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Clean and disinfect calf collection trailer after each collection<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Clean and disinfect teats of colostrum cows before milking<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Thoroughly disinfect all teat skin with alcohol-based teat wipes before attaching cups.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Ensure stored colostrum is properly preserved and nutritious<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>If storing colostrum, use a preservative such as potassium sorbate (0.5% w\/v) or consider using equipment to pasteurise colostrum\/fresh milk or use powder milk replacer for calf feed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Prevent contamination of stored colostrum<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Prevent access by birds or rodents and only use stirring equipment that has been cleaned and disinfected.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Clean and disinfect calf liquid feeding equipment<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Clean and disinfect colostrum- and milk-feeding equipment before first use and frequently (daily where feasible) during ongoing use.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Don&#8217;t feed calves raw waste milk<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Milk from sick or antibiotic-treated cows is poor quality and possibly contaminated with disease-causing bacteria.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">Infection spreading and recycling between stock via manure and effluent<\/td>\n<td>Ensure that dairy effluent or manure slurry or solids are spread on land according to best practice<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>\nSee <a href=\"https:\/\/www.dairynz.co.nz\/environment\/effluent\/effluent-management-and-operation\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">\nDairyNZ Effluent Management and Operation\n<\/a>\nand comply with regional council requirements.\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"3\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">Infection spreading between stock via equipment or personnel<\/td>\n<td>Separate and hygienically manage sick animals<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Staff should handle or manage sick animals separately and after healthy ones and maintain strict hygienic measures.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Minimise the number of people entering calf rearing facilities<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Provide\/ensure clean PPE used by anyone entering calf rearing facilities<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Includes boots, leggings, overalls, disposable gloves.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td rowspan=\"3\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">Infection spreading between calves because of facilities design and management<\/td>\n<td>Clean and disinfect calf rearing facilities and equipment after all calves moved outdoors<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Dispose of calf bedding in way that doesn&#8217;t recycle pathogens back to livestock<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Install solid partitions between pens<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td rowspan=\"7\" style=\"background:#d9ebf7;font-weight:bold\">Compromised animal immunity (particularly neonatal calves and transition cows)<\/td>\n<td>Optimise body condition score of transition cows<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Ensure heifers and cows are in correct body condition at calving and that dry matter intake is optimal and consistent, especially over cow transition period.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Prevent heifer-adult cow dominance antagonism in critical periods<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Consider mixing rising 2-year-olds with mixed-age cows a few weeks prior to transition period.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Provide sufficient space for all cattle to freely access feed from feed troughs<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Allow 0.7 &#8211; 1m per cow.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Optimally manage transition cow diseases<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Apply effective programmes to monitor and treat diseases, particularly common peripartum disorders such as dystocia, mastitis, metritis\/retained placenta, milk fever.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Carefully manage mineral supplements (Mg, Ca, Na, Trace elements)<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Develop mineral supplementation programmes in conjunction with your veterinarian and\/or nutritionist and follow recommended inclusion rates.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#f5f9fc\">\n<td>Optimise use of supplementary feeds<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Develop herd feeding programmes in conjunction with your veterinarian and\/or nutritionist.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<tr style=\"background:#ffffff\">\n<td>Optimise colostrum feeding of newborn calves<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align:center\">Y \/ N<\/td>\n<td>Ensure every calf has 2 feeds of 2 litres of high quality (&gt;22% Brix) colostrum within 12 hrs of birth.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\u00a0\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\u00a0\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns has-subtle-background-background-color has-background is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column aligncenter is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-file aligncenter\"><a id=\"wp-block-file--media-82ac0b1b-0ef2-491b-b1a9-4cc2dff028e1\" href=\"http:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/161\/2026\/08\/SalmonellaBiosecurityCheckList-1.pdf\">&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/161\/2026\/08\/SalmonellaBiosecurityCheckList-2.pdf\" class=\"wp-block-file__button wp-element-button\" download aria-describedby=\"wp-block-file--media-82ac0b1b-0ef2-491b-b1a9-4cc2dff028e1\">  Download  <\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:66%\">\n<p><strong>Click on Download button to receive a PDF of the checklist<\/strong>  <br><em>PDF (60 kb)<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Human health risk<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The disease control focus should not be only on cattle. Farmers with salmonellosis in their livestock should:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Be made aware of the significant risk of developing salmonellosis themselves or by members of their families and farm workers, especially children, the elderly, immune-compromised, those taking antibiotics and those entering calf-rearing facilities<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Not drink raw milk from their herd<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Not bring their outer clothing or footwear into the house<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wash hands thoroughly in warm soapy water and scrub them for 20 seconds<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Carefully follow hygienic food handling measures when eating or preparing food<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Cleaning and disinfection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\">Organic matter e.g. manure, dirt, milk and milk fat must first be removed by brushing and\/or warm water\/detergent mix before a disinfectant is used on the surface. Organic matter deactivates disinfectants.<br><br>Disinfectants recommended or with label claims for control of <em>Salmonella <\/em>include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Chlorine dioxide (250 ppm &#8211; <a href=\"https:\/\/dx50.co.nz\/\">dx50<\/a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.vetpak.co.nz\/product\/details\/calf\/vetsan-super-concentrate\">vetpak<\/a> ) (Holschbach,2018)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Quarternary ammonium products<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Chlorhexidine products<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">For more information see<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Gay, J. M. (1999). <em>Salmonella <\/em>(Modules and Documents). Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Health Diagnostic Center. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.vet.cornell.edu\/animal-health-diagnostic-center\/programs\/nyschap\/modules-documents\">link<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Holschbach, C. L., &amp; Peek, S. F. (2018). <em>Salmonella <\/em>in dairy cattle. Veterinary Clinics of North America &#8211; Food Animal Practice, 34(1), 133\u2013154. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cvfa.2017.10.005\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cvfa.2017.10.005\">link<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lombard, J. E., &amp; Garry, F. B. (2025). Biosecurity practices for mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection, salmonellosis, and bovine leukemia virus on cattle operations. Veterinary Clinics of North America &#8211; Food Animal Practice, 41(1), 93\u2013101.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mohler, V. L., &amp; House, J. (2009). Salmonellosis in ruminants. In Current Veterinary Therapy: Food Animal Practice (pp. 106\u2013111). <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mohler, V. L., Izzo, M. M., &amp; House, J. K. (2009). <em>Salmonella <\/em>in calves. Veterinary Clinics of North America &#8211; Food Animal Practice, 25(1), 37\u201354. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Parker, A. M., House, J. K., Hazelton, M. S., Bosward, K. L., Mohler, V. L., Maunsell, F. P., &amp; Sheehy, P. A. (2016). Milk acidification to control the growth of Mycoplasma bovis and <em>Salmonella <\/em>Dublin in contaminated milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(12), 9875\u20139884. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3168\/jds.2016-11537\">link<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Biosecurity measures to control salmonellosis on NZ dairy farms Background Key features of Salmonella to understand to formulate an effective control programme are that Salmonella: The key factors that affect whether ingestion of Salmonella leads to clinical disease and its severity are the: Of these factors, the first can\u2019t be controlled on farm, but the [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":266,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":1,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"templates\/template-full-width.php","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-212","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/212","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/266"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=212"}],"version-history":[{"count":151,"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/212\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":578,"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/212\/revisions\/578"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.massey.ac.nz\/salmonella\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=212"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}